diff --git a/.github/workflows/ci.yml b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
index 64206380..edaaffff 100644
--- a/.github/workflows/ci.yml
+++ b/.github/workflows/ci.yml
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ jobs:
         env:
           VIRTUAL_ENV: ${{ github.workspace }}/.venv
         # The ML demos run in their own job, below.
-        run: uv run --no-project pytest -v . -m "not integration" --ignore=tests/test_ml_demos.py
+        run: uv run --no-project pytest -v . -m "not integration and not benchmark" --ignore=tests/test_ml_demos.py
 
   ml-demos:
     # Each ML demo in benchmarks/ml, at its smallest size, checked against
@@ -121,3 +121,125 @@ jobs:
         env:
           VIRTUAL_ENV: ${{ github.workspace }}/.venv
         run: uv run --no-project pytest -v tests/test_ml_demos.py
+
+  benchmarks:
+    # tests/test_benchmarks.py, tracked over time with pytest-benchmark.
+    name: "benchmarks"
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    # Only on main: a PR from a fork has no permission to push to
+    # gh-pages, and a dispatch from another branch shouldn't record a
+    # point into history that doesn't belong to main's timeline.
+    if: github.ref == 'refs/heads/main' && (github.event_name == 'push' || github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch')
+    permissions:
+      contents: write
+      deployments: write
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+
+      - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
+        id: rust-toolchain
+
+      - name: Setup sccache
+        uses: mozilla-actions/sccache-action@v0.0.9
+
+      - name: Configure sccache
+        run: |
+          echo "SCCACHE_GHA_ENABLED=true" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+          echo "RUSTC_WRAPPER=sccache" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+
+      - name: Cache Cargo
+        uses: actions/cache@v4
+        with:
+          path: ~/.cargo
+          key: cargo-cache-${{ steps.rust-toolchain.outputs.cachekey }}-${{ hashFiles('Cargo.lock') }}
+
+      - uses: astral-sh/setup-uv@v5
+        with:
+          python-version: "3.12"
+          enable-cache: true
+
+      - name: Install xarray_sql
+        run: uv sync --locked --dev --extra benchmark --no-install-package xarray-sql
+      - name: build rust
+        run: uv run --no-project maturin develop --uv
+      - name: Run benchmarks
+        env:
+          VIRTUAL_ENV: ${{ github.workspace }}/.venv
+        run: uv run --no-project pytest tests/test_benchmarks.py -m benchmark --benchmark-only --benchmark-json=benchmark.json
+      - name: Store benchmark result
+        uses: benchmark-action/github-action-benchmark@v1
+        with:
+          name: "Python benchmarks (pytest-benchmark)"
+          tool: "pytest"
+          output-file-path: benchmark.json
+          github-token: ${{ secrets.GITHUB_TOKEN }}
+          auto-push: true
+          # mike (docs.yml) owns dev/, 0.x/, latest/, index.html and
+          # versions.json on gh-pages, and replaces dev/ wholesale on
+          # every docs deploy; the default dev/bench would collide
+          # with that and get wiped out. Use a root-level path mike
+          # never touches.
+          benchmark-data-dir-path: benchmarks
+          # Hosted runners are noisy; keep this loose until there's
+          # enough history on gh-pages to pick a tighter threshold.
+          alert-threshold: "200%"
+          comment-on-alert: true
+          fail-on-alert: false
+
+  codspeed:
+    # The same benchmark as the job above, run by CodSpeed
+    # (https://codspeed.io/), which counts instructions rather than
+    # wall time, so it doesn't need repeats to average out a hosted
+    # runner's noise. It can also report on pull requests, including
+    # from forks, since it needs no write access to this repository.
+    #
+    # Dispatch-only for now: CodSpeedHQ/action authenticates against a
+    # CodSpeed project for this repo, which doesn't exist until an org
+    # admin installs CodSpeed's GitHub App on xqlsystems/xarray-sql and
+    # connects it (https://codspeed.io/docs). Until then, `push` or
+    # `pull_request` would just fail. Once it's connected, add `push`
+    # and `pull_request` to the `if:` below (matching the `benchmarks`
+    # job isn't required: CodSpeed's own token doesn't need gh-pages's
+    # write access, so it can run on every PR, not just main).
+    name: "codspeed"
+    runs-on: ubuntu-latest
+    if: github.event_name == 'workflow_dispatch'
+    permissions:
+      contents: read
+      id-token: write
+    steps:
+      - uses: actions/checkout@v4
+
+      - uses: dtolnay/rust-toolchain@stable
+        id: rust-toolchain
+
+      - name: Setup sccache
+        uses: mozilla-actions/sccache-action@v0.0.9
+
+      - name: Configure sccache
+        run: |
+          echo "SCCACHE_GHA_ENABLED=true" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+          echo "RUSTC_WRAPPER=sccache" >> $GITHUB_ENV
+
+      - name: Cache Cargo
+        uses: actions/cache@v4
+        with:
+          path: ~/.cargo
+          key: cargo-cache-${{ steps.rust-toolchain.outputs.cachekey }}-${{ hashFiles('Cargo.lock') }}
+
+      - uses: astral-sh/setup-uv@v5
+        with:
+          python-version: "3.12"
+          enable-cache: true
+
+      - name: Install xarray_sql
+        run: uv sync --locked --dev --extra benchmark --no-install-package xarray-sql
+      - name: build rust
+        run: uv run --no-project maturin develop --uv
+      - name: Run benchmarks
+        uses: CodSpeedHQ/action@v5
+        env:
+          VIRTUAL_ENV: ${{ github.workspace }}/.venv
+        with:
+          mode: simulation
+          run: uv run --no-project pytest tests/test_benchmarks.py -m benchmark --codspeed
diff --git a/pyproject.toml b/pyproject.toml
index d7b32771..7cde7a4a 100644
--- a/pyproject.toml
+++ b/pyproject.toml
@@ -64,6 +64,17 @@ geo = [
 ml = [
   "ddxdb>=0.4.6,<0.5; sys_platform != 'emscripten'",
 ]
+# Benchmarks tracked over time in CI (see tests/test_benchmarks.py).
+# pytest-codspeed recognizes pytest-benchmark's `benchmark` fixture, so
+# a benchmark written against pytest-benchmark runs unmodified under
+# either. Installed together, a --codspeed run disables pytest-
+# benchmark's own instrumentation for that run rather than double-
+# measuring; CodSpeed's CI job (.github/workflows/ci.yml) is
+# dispatch-only until its GitHub App is installed on the repo.
+benchmark = [
+  "pytest-benchmark>=4.0",
+  "pytest-codspeed>=3.0",
+]
 test = [
   "adbc-driver-flightsql>=1.12",
   "adbc-driver-sqlite>=1.12",
@@ -133,6 +144,7 @@ ignore_missing_imports = true
 dev = [
     "xarray_sql[test]",
     "xarray_sql[docs]",
+    "xarray_sql[benchmark]",
     "py-spy>=0.4.0",
     "ruff>=0.15.10",
     "maturin>=1.9.1",
@@ -156,4 +168,5 @@ cache-keys = [{file = "pyproject.toml"}, {file = "rust/Cargo.toml"}, {file = "**
 testpaths = ["tests"]
 markers = [
     "integration: needs network (anonymous GCS); excluded from the CI unit run",
+    "benchmark: tracked by pytest-benchmark in its own CI job; excluded from the CI unit run",
 ]
diff --git a/tests/test_benchmarks.py b/tests/test_benchmarks.py
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..fdc3eecd
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tests/test_benchmarks.py
@@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
+"""A benchmark tracked over time in CI (see CONTRIBUTING.md).
+
+Starts small: one benchmark, over an in-memory Dataset that needs no
+network, so a regression in xarray-sql, DataFusion or the in-memory
+table adapter shows up in the history github-action-benchmark stores
+on every push to main.
+
+Uses pytest-benchmark's ``benchmark`` fixture. pytest-codspeed
+(https://codspeed.io/) provides a fixture of the same name, so a
+benchmark written this way can run unmodified under either, if
+CodSpeed's instruction-counting is added later.
+"""
+
+import numpy as np
+import pytest
+import xarray as xr
+
+from xarray_sql import Context
+
+pytestmark = pytest.mark.benchmark
+
+
+@pytest.fixture(scope="module")
+def grid() -> xr.Dataset:
+    """A synthetic (time, lat, lon) grid: 100 x 50 x 50 cells, no I/O."""
+    rng = np.random.default_rng(0)
+    time, lat, lon = 100, 50, 50
+    return xr.Dataset(
+        {
+            "temperature": (
+                ("time", "lat", "lon"),
+                rng.normal(size=(time, lat, lon)),
+            ),
+        },
+        coords={
+            "time": np.arange(time),
+            "lat": np.arange(lat),
+            "lon": np.arange(lon),
+        },
+    )
+
+
+def test_groupby_mean_over_time(benchmark, grid):
+    """A climatology query: mean over time, grouped by lat and lon."""
+    ctx = Context()
+    ctx.from_dataset("grid", grid)
+
+    def run():
+        return ctx.sql(
+            "SELECT lat, lon, AVG(temperature) AS mean_temp "
+            'FROM "grid" GROUP BY lat, lon ORDER BY lat, lon'
+        ).to_dataset()
+
+    result = benchmark(run)
+    assert result.sizes["lat"] == grid.sizes["lat"]
+    assert result.sizes["lon"] == grid.sizes["lon"]
+    expected = grid["temperature"].mean("time")
+    np.testing.assert_allclose(result["mean_temp"].values, expected.values)
diff --git a/uv.lock b/uv.lock
index 50583113..b5427034 100644
--- a/uv.lock
+++ b/uv.lock
@@ -235,8 +235,8 @@ name = "beautifulsoup4"
 version = "4.13.4"
 source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "soupsieve" },
-    { name = "typing-extensions" },
+    { name = "soupsieve", marker = "python_full_version >= '3.11'" },
+    { name = "typing-extensions", marker = "python_full_version >= '3.11'" },
 ]
 sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/d8/e4/0c4c39e18fd76d6a628d4dd8da40543d136ce2d1752bd6eeeab0791f4d6b/beautifulsoup4-4.13.4.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:dbb3c4e1ceae6aefebdaf2423247260cd062430a410e38c66f2baa50a8437195", size = 621067, upload-time = "2025-04-15T17:05:13.836Z" }
 wheels = [
@@ -257,8 +257,8 @@ name = "cattrs"
 version = "25.1.1"
 source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "attrs" },
-    { name = "typing-extensions" },
+    { name = "attrs", marker = "python_full_version >= '3.11'" },
+    { name = "typing-extensions", marker = "python_full_version >= '3.11'" },
 ]
 sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/57/2b/561d78f488dcc303da4639e02021311728fb7fda8006dd2835550cddd9ed/cattrs-25.1.1.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:c914b734e0f2d59e5b720d145ee010f1fd9a13ee93900922a2f3f9d593b8382c", size = 435016, upload-time = "2025-06-04T20:27:15.44Z" }
 wheels = [
@@ -571,7 +571,7 @@ name = "donfig"
 version = "0.8.1.post1"
 source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "pyyaml" },
+    { name = "pyyaml", marker = "python_full_version >= '3.11'" },
 ]
 sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/25/71/80cc718ff6d7abfbabacb1f57aaa42e9c1552bfdd01e64ddd704e4a03638/donfig-0.8.1.post1.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:3bef3413a4c1c601b585e8d297256d0c1470ea012afa6e8461dc28bfb7c23f52", size = 19506, upload-time = "2024-05-23T14:14:31.513Z" }
 wheels = [
@@ -642,7 +642,7 @@ name = "exceptiongroup"
 version = "1.3.0"
 source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "typing-extensions" },
+    { name = "typing-extensions", marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
 ]
 sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/0b/9f/a65090624ecf468cdca03533906e7c69ed7588582240cfe7cc9e770b50eb/exceptiongroup-1.3.0.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:b241f5885f560bc56a59ee63ca4c6a8bfa46ae4ad651af316d4e81817bb9fd88", size = 29749, upload-time = "2025-05-10T17:42:51.123Z" }
 wheels = [
@@ -1009,7 +1009,7 @@ name = "importlib-metadata"
 version = "8.7.0"
 source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "zipp" },
+    { name = "zipp", marker = "python_full_version < '3.12'" },
 ]
 sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/76/66/650a33bd90f786193e4de4b3ad86ea60b53c89b669a5c7be931fac31cdb0/importlib_metadata-8.7.0.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:d13b81ad223b890aa16c5471f2ac3056cf76c5f10f82d6f9292f0b415f389000", size = 56641, upload-time = "2025-04-27T15:29:01.736Z" }
 wheels = [
@@ -1042,11 +1042,11 @@ resolution-markers = [
     "python_full_version < '3.11'",
 ]
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "jaxlib", version = "0.6.2", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "ml-dtypes" },
-    { name = "numpy", version = "2.2.6", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "opt-einsum" },
-    { name = "scipy", version = "1.15.3", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
+    { name = "jaxlib", version = "0.6.2", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
+    { name = "ml-dtypes", marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.2.6", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
+    { name = "opt-einsum", marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
+    { name = "scipy", version = "1.15.3", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
 ]
 sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/cf/1e/267f59c8fb7f143c3f778c76cb7ef1389db3fd7e4540f04b9f42ca90764d/jax-0.6.2.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:a437d29038cbc8300334119692744704ca7941490867b9665406b7f90665cd96", size = 2334091, upload-time = "2025-06-17T23:10:27.186Z" }
 wheels = [
@@ -1061,11 +1061,11 @@ resolution-markers = [
     "python_full_version == '3.11.*'",
 ]
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "jaxlib", version = "0.10.2", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "ml-dtypes" },
-    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "opt-einsum" },
-    { name = "scipy", version = "1.16.0", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
+    { name = "jaxlib", version = "0.10.2", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
+    { name = "ml-dtypes", marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
+    { name = "opt-einsum", marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
+    { name = "scipy", version = "1.16.0", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
 ]
 sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/d2/73/eb91d98fcadfa2cbcfdd4e417ab116e47eb20882acc5ee678e47c35d6b57/jax-0.10.2.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:bf77428a8c2e6904c4f46d5ab12aa5cfc6cad2179f07f7e4c0fc75ac86ef0639", size = 2775110, upload-time = "2026-06-17T23:44:57.818Z" }
 wheels = [
@@ -1082,11 +1082,11 @@ resolution-markers = [
     "python_full_version == '3.12.*'",
 ]
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "jaxlib", version = "0.12.0.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "ml-dtypes" },
-    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "opt-einsum" },
-    { name = "scipy", version = "1.16.0", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
+    { name = "jaxlib", version = "0.12.0.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
+    { name = "ml-dtypes", marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
+    { name = "opt-einsum", marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
+    { name = "scipy", version = "1.16.0", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
 ]
 sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/2e/5b/5b7f007852809973310ed99eede7db6e9e1cd60914f8fe90b091ae264db4/jax-0.12.0.1.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:f543fb1151c351d328b7dd9e40865c01bf9ae10cdf7e21637196172891d51914", size = 3024361, upload-time = "2026-10-21T21:07:07.969Z" }
 wheels = [
@@ -1101,9 +1101,9 @@ resolution-markers = [
     "python_full_version < '3.11'",
 ]
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "ml-dtypes" },
-    { name = "numpy", version = "2.2.6", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "scipy", version = "1.15.3", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
+    { name = "ml-dtypes", marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.2.6", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
+    { name = "scipy", version = "1.15.3", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version < '3.11'" },
 ]
 wheels = [
     { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/15/c5/41598634c99cbebba46e6777286fb76abc449d33d50aeae5d36128ca8803/jaxlib-0.6.2-cp310-cp310-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl", hash = "sha256:da4601b2b5dc8c23d6afb293eacfb9aec4e1d1871cb2f29c5a151d103e73b0f8", size = 54298019, upload-time = "2025-06-17T23:10:36.916Z" },
@@ -1134,9 +1134,9 @@ resolution-markers = [
     "python_full_version == '3.11.*'",
 ]
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "ml-dtypes" },
-    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "scipy", version = "1.16.0", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
+    { name = "ml-dtypes", marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
+    { name = "scipy", version = "1.16.0", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version == '3.11.*'" },
 ]
 wheels = [
     { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/b2/2c/7038fc73154307389631b5b2dbe5ac529e1918eecc19a27e6644ad114bbf/jaxlib-0.10.2-cp311-cp311-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl", hash = "sha256:5a98873fc867623b81f2bee15d554b8edd6588a183d01fa50d21b1e3db96ff2b", size = 61429039, upload-time = "2026-06-17T23:43:44.858Z" },
@@ -1173,9 +1173,9 @@ resolution-markers = [
     "python_full_version == '3.12.*'",
 ]
 dependencies = [
-    { name = "ml-dtypes" },
-    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
-    { name = "scipy", version = "1.16.0", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" } },
+    { name = "ml-dtypes", marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
+    { name = "numpy", version = "2.3.1", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
+    { name = "scipy", version = "1.16.0", source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }, marker = "python_full_version >= '3.12'" },
 ]
 wheels = [
     { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/17/73/47d66eeab3bb5a48009772f4fa572e46bdf8049ecb180f83d544c933462f/jaxlib-0.12.0.1-cp312-cp312-macosx_11_0_arm64.whl", hash = "sha256:db2cc8584d7d0d166293ef2475b726988a10f6f9b5a8e3b8e3712415e5570380", size = 60710018, upload-time = "2026-10-21T21:05:22.443Z" },
@@ -1315,6 +1315,18 @@ wheels = [
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 ]
 
+[[package]]
+name = "markdown-it-py"
+version = "4.2.0"
+source = { registry = "https://pypi.org/simple" }
+dependencies = [
+    { name = "mdurl" },
+]
+sdist = { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/06/ff/7841249c247aa650a76b9ee4bbaeae59370dc8bfd2f6c01f3630c35eb134/markdown_it_py-4.2.0.tar.gz", hash = "sha256:04a21681d6fbb623de53f6f364d352309d4094dd4194040a10fd51833e418d49", size = 82454, upload-time = "2026-05-07T12:08:28.36Z" }
+wheels = [
+    { url = "https://files.pythonhosted.org/packages/b3/81/4da04ced5a082363ecfa159c010d200ecbd959ae410c10c0264a38cac0f5/markdown_it_py-4.2.0-py3-none-any.whl", hash = "sha256:9f7ebbcd14fe59494226453aed97c1070d83f8d24b6fc3a3bcf9a38092641c4a", size = 91687, upload-time = "2026-05-07T12:08:27.182Z" },
+]
+
 [[package]]
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